Periphery biomarkers to assess the vulnerability of type 2 diabetic patients to Alzheimer's disease

Abstract

Adult-onset diabetes, which is also known as type 2 diabetes (T2D), is a chronic metabolic disorder associated with increased vulnerability to Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a progressive neuronal degenerative condition. This chapter explores the utility of peripheral biomarkers in assessing the risk of AD in T2D patients. The shared pathophysiological mechanisms between T2D and AD, including insulin resistance, chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and vascular dysfunction, underline the need for early diagnostic tools. Peripheral biomarkers such as metabolic markers (HbA1c, AGEs), inflammatory markers (CRP, cytokines), neurodegenerative markers (plasma amyloid-β, NfL), and vascular markers (homocysteine, lipid profiles) hold promise for determining risk factors and monitoring the progression of disease. Advances in proteomics, metabolomics, genomics, and epigenetics are expanding the repertoire of potential biomarkers, offering minimally invasive and cost-effective approaches for early detection. Integration of these biomarkers with clinical strategies can enable personalized therapeutic interventions and improve patient outcomes. However, challenges such as biomarker validation, multiomics integration, and translation into clinical practice need to be integrated to facilitate their potential. This chapter emphasizes the significance of peripheral biomarkers in bridging the gap between T2D and AD, paving the way for enhanced prevention and management strategies. © 2026 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved..