Antifungal resistance in dermatophytes: Essential oil-based nanoformulations as new generation therapeutics against dermatophytes

Abstract

Dermatophytosis is the most prevalent infection globally, affecting the stratum corneum of the skin, nails, and hair with a high recurrence rate. It transmits between humans and from humans to animals. Despite progress in medicine, its prevalence continues to increase. Therefore, current treatments, such as terbinafine, fluconazole, and other antifungal drugs, face challenges related to the emergence of fungal resistance, side effects, and toxicity associated with prolonged use, thereby highlighting the need for new therapeutic options. Medicinal plants are a never-ending source of bioactive chemicals, and their volatile and non-volatile extracts are widely acknowledged for therapeutic healthcare. Natural plant-derived products, especially essential oils (EOs) exhibit multiple modes of action that reduce the chances of resistance development in fungi. EOs have been reported as highly efficacious plant-based antifungals against different dermatophytes. Nanoencapsulation of EOs has emerged as an innovative strategy for maintaining and managing the volatile and reactive properties of EOs. The review presents current information on the emergence of resistance development in dermatophytes and investigates the potential of EOs and their nanoformulations as next-generation nano-therapeutics against dermatophytic infections. It also highlights advancements in nanosystems, along with findings from animal and clinical studies to improve treatment efficacy and address the limits of traditional therapy by combining diverse antifungal medicines with novel delivery methods. © 2025 Elsevier Ltd