A Review on Scattering Techniques for Analysis of Nanomaterials and Biomaterials

Abstract

Nanomaterials and biomaterials are becoming increasingly important in current scientific and industrial communities. Nanomaterials are beyond the perception of the human eye. Thus, to determine the structure, morphology, and exact formation of materials on the nanoscale, an authentic technique is required. Recently, attempts have been made to determine the structure of materials at the nanoscale level. With the progress of time and advancements in scientific knowledge, the method of characterization has changed. Nanomaterial characterization techniques can be broadly classified into three main types: (1) spectroscopic, (2) microscopic, and (3) Scattering Techniques. Scattering techniques are very important and act as confirmatory techniques for determining the structure of materials at the nanoscale. Furthermore, most of the scattering is non-destructive, that is, the samples can be recovered after analysis. Considering the importance of the technique and its versatile utility, an attempt has been made to discuss various characterization techniques used for the analysis of materials at the nanoscale. We have discussed the working principles, applications, and limitations of various characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), neutron scattering, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and electron microscopy. We have discussed each characterization technique in detail, highlighting the strength of the technique, its limitations, and recent developments in particular characterization with data analysis. Furthermore, this review examines the specific applications of scattering techniques in the characterization of nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and nanostructured surfaces, and in the analysis of biomaterials, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipid membranes. The role of scattering techniques in elucidating the structural properties, morphology, size distribution, and interactions of these materials has been thoroughly investigated. In the last section of this review, we discuss the future possibilities for further improvements and applications of various characterization techniques. The scientific community will obtain in detail information about characterization techniques through a single review paper. Scattering techniques find numerous applications in various sectors such as in structure determination, material characterization, particle size analysis, thin film analysis, protein structure determination, cell membrane studies, cancer research, drug formulation, quality control, fingerprints and DNA analysis, etc. © The Author(s) 2025.