Biodegradation of acetaminophen: Current knowledge and future directions with mechanistic insights from omics

Abstract

Acetaminophen (APAP), one of the most frequently used antipyretic and analgesic medications, has recently grown into a persistent organic contaminant of emerging concern due to its over-the-counter and widespread use. The excessive accumulation of APAP and its derivatives in various environmental matrices is threatening human health and the ecosystem. The complexity of APAP and its intermediates augments the need for adequate innovative and sustainable strategies for the remediation of contaminated environments. Bioremediation serves as an efficient, eco-friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable approach to mitigate the toxic impacts of APAP. The present review provides comprehensive insights into the ecotoxicity of APAP, its complex biodegradation pathways, and the various factors influencing biodegradation. The omics approaches viz., genomics/metagenomics, transcriptomics/metatranscriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics have emerged as powerful tools for understanding the diverse APAP-degraders, degradation-associated genes, enzymatic pathways, and metabolites. The outcomes revealed amidases, deaminases, oxygenases, and dioxygenases as the lead enzymes mediating degradation via 4-aminophenol, hydroquinone, hydroxyquinol, 3-hydroxy-cis, cis-muconate, etc. as the major intermediates. Overall, a holistic approach with the amalgamation of omics aspects would accelerate the bioaugmentation processes and play a significant role in formulating strategies for remediating and reducing the heavy loads of acetaminophen from the environmental matrices. © 2025 Elsevier Ltd